![]() ![]() Brain development is a constantly changing interaction between genes and the environment, with postnatal experiences altering the structure of the brain. 4 Importantly, the original view of brain development as subject to tight genetic control has been abandoned. 3įirst, it is important to understand some basics about brain development. Importantly, within this framework the effects of early life abuse can be expressed differently at different ages, with short- and long-term effects showing distinct patterns and the most dramatic effects delayed until later life. Attachment has two basic functions: (1) Attachment ensures the child remain in proximity of the caregiver, and (2) attachment programs the lifelong structure and function of the brain. This Article reviews the child abuse and neglect neuroscience literature presented within the framework of attachment, because most abuse is from the caregiver. Decades ago, we attributed these deficits to psychological problems as though there was no physical manifestation of the problems, but we now know better-the structure and functioning of the brain contribute to these behavioral traits. Since early life abuse can be associated with brain damage from prenatal and postnatal (that is, via lactation) drug and alcohol abuse, 2 the effects of child abuse can be comorbid with additional difficulties. These early life traumas go beyond the normal programming of the brain and initiate a pathway to pathology, which can often have a delayed expression until the child approaches periadolescence. Aberrant experiences, including abuse and neglect from the caregiver, however, can hijack this experience-based system, leading to emotional and cognitive deficits and a view of the world as a dangerous place. This flexible, experience-based tuning of the brain’s development enables many parenting styles and relationships to produce children who grow into productive, law-abiding citizens that contribute to society. ![]() ![]() In particular, they can determine how emotional centers of the brain communicate with the cortex and its higher functioning to determine our personality, our choices, and how we approach the world. The effects of this experience-based sculpting of the brain have profound effects on how the brain functions. 1 These early life experiences can dramatically alter the number of specialized communication cells within the brain (neurons), and these experiences can then increase or decrease the complexity of the neurons (dendritic branches) and the number of communication sites between them (synapses). We have known for decades that childhood experiences interact with genetics to change the structure of the brain and cause behavioral change. Thus, the immaturity of the brain combined with the unique processing of trauma may underlie the enduring effects of abuse, which remain largely hidden in early life but emerge as mental health issues in periadolescence. Neurobiological research on animals suggests that trauma during attachment is processed differently by the brain, with maternal presence dramatically attenuating the fear center of the brain (amygdala). Traumatic experiences interact with genetics to change the structure and function of the brain, compromising emotional and cognitive development and initiating a pathway to pathology. While a neural system that ensures attachment regardless of the quality of care has immediate benefits, this attachment comes with a high cost. A child attaches to the caregiver regardless of the quality of care received, even if the caregiver is abusive and neglectful. Animal research has uncovered segments of the attachment circuitry within the brain and has highlighted rapid, robust learning to support this attachment. ![]() This programming impacts immediate behaviors, as well as behaviors that emerge later in development. Second, attachment “quality programs” the brain. First, attachment ensures the infant remain in the proximity of the caregiver to procure resources for survival and protection. This attachment serves two basic functions. Attachment depends on the offspring learning about the caregiver in a process that begins prenatally and continues through most of early life. Children have brain circuitry to ensure attachment to their caregivers. Experiences with and attachment to the caregiver appear particularly important, and recent research suggests this may be due, in part, to the attachment circuitry within the brain. Within the range of normal experiences, this system enables the brain to be modified during development to adapt to various environments and cultures. Decades of research have shown that childhood experiences interact with our genetics to change the structure and function of the brain. ![]()
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